Examining The Hour

This paper is an attempt to understand and explain the concept of the Tao with its various philosophical aspects and implications. In my writing I will strive to develop a coherent and lucid account of the historical background, major philosophical components, and the implication of these ideas. Following is a list of the ideological traditions I hope to explore: Non-Action, Spontaneity, Emptiness, and True or Pure Person.

Historical Background:

According to Bowker we do not know the specific time period when religious practice began in China. However, we do have archaeological evidence of ritualistic actions that pre-date the survival of written texts. (Bowker 112) In telling of an account about the Chancellor of the Imperial University, Bowker shares how “Oracle Bones” were discovered to be a significant component of early Chinese religion.

Oracle bones were a key element of early religious practice in China – discovered by chance in the late nineteenth century. In 1898, the Chancellor of the Imperial University (Guozi jian), Wang Yirong (1845 – 1900), was given a prescription for curing his ague which required the use of ‘dragon bones’ (actually tortoise shells and cattle bones). When the ‘dragon bones’ were purchased from a pharmacy, Wang discovered that some carried strange inscriptions, which, being a renown scholar of ancient Chinese culture, he realized related to inscriptions in the then earliest known Chinese writing system found on bronze artifacts.(Bowker 112)

While there is little known about the history of religion in China before Confucianism, we find writings in the early Confucian texts that seem to confirm the archeological evidence mentioned above. In texts such as “The Book of History”, we find documentation regarding important historical and religious activity that speak of some historical accounts and ritual practices that correlate with what we now know archeologically. In regard to the Oracle bones, these insights and findings do not give us evidence of the philosophical back drop to which Taoism was introduced, but does help us to understand that the religious and spiritual atmosphere was centered around Divination and mystical interpretation of such objects. (Bowker 112)

There also seems to be evidence of the concept of and belief in a “Supreme deity” within early Chinese religion. There are two terms that have been debated for the naming of this deity, but both apparently mean the same thing. The first term is Tian Zhu, which is literally translated “Lord of Heaven” and the second terms is Shang Di, which means “Ruler on High”. (Morton 143) This concept has been of particular interest to Christians throughout history as a bridge point for apologetics and evangelism. Authors, such as Matteo Ricci have been able to use this conception to establish a credible argument for an original monotheism in China. In 1603 Ricci published his book, On the True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven. This book argues that not only was there an original monotheism in china but that Confucius himself held a monotheistic belief. One other argument that Ricci develops is on the degradation of religion from monotheism to a ritualistic polytheism. Harold Netland states, “Even those scholars who disagreed with him treated him as an intellectual equal and recognized his interpretation as a legitimate possibility.” (Netland 255)

In regard to the notion of a Supreme Being or “Lord on High”, I have discovered that the majority of the books (on the history of Chinese religion) I have researched point out this doctrine. Several of them have various ways of explaining this development, but each explanation typically comes from a “naturalistic” position or a “super-naturalist” position. One example of the naturalistic position is found with writers such as Scott Morton, who mentions that it is likely the ancestor worship, which was common to the Chinese people at this time, took the concept of a benevolent ancestry and extrapolated this to the point of projecting a “fatherly” lord of heaven. (Morton 30) Other authors will take this idea and show how ancestor worship came later and was actually a form of fragmentation and disintegration of the “Lord of Heaven” credence.

The Tao:

While looking for a good definition for the concept of Tao I found that its direct translation is “Way” or “Path”. David Hinton describes it as “The generative ontological process through which all things rise and pass away, Tao might provisionally be divided into being and non-being, the generative sources of being and its transformations.” (Hinton 95) Another source asserts that, Tao is the process of reality itself, the way things come together, while still transforming. All this reflects the deep seated Chinese belief that change is the most basic character of things. (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) But even in trying to define this term, we are in some sense corrupting it or robbing it of its true essence. Below I have provided a quote of the Tao Te Ching which supports this idea:

The tao that can be told
is not the eternal Tao.
The name that can be named
is not the eternal Name.
The unnamable is the eternally real.
Naming is the origin
of all particular things.

This seems to imply that the Tao that is spoken is in fact, not the actual Tao but only a representative or abstraction from the “real” and authentic. We gather from this that the Tao is in some way removed from the natural processes or realm itself and is yet the “governing” force or principle that directs that very process. It is inaccessible to us or impossible for us to fathom the whole truth and significance of it.

We also learn from the Tao Te Ching that the Tao itself is impersonal and yet benevolent and always working out for what is good and right. It does not discriminate or choose the wrong man over the right. (TTC 8) According to Raymond Smullyan in his book, The Tao Is Silent, “the Tao loves and nourishes all things, but does not lord it over them! Tao is something totally friendly and benevolent—friendly to all beings, not just those who believe in it or “accept it as Savior!” Thus Tao is the sort of thing which is impossible to believe in without loving.” (Smullyan 50) While this author describes or at least discusses the possibility of loving the Tao, it would not be in the same sense as you or I loving another person or a “Savior.” The Tao being impersonal would never render the possibility of a reciprocated and active love due to the nature of the Tao being impersonal. It does not love and yet it is a “life giving” and benevolent force. It is much like the force of gravity in this way. Gravity is not partial to those who speak of it or place their faith in its ability and power. One may hope and pray that it will “hold them close” to the earth and keep them from floating into space, but it does not for that reason treat them any differently than their neighbor who does not practice the same “gravity worship.”

While the Tao is not thought of as a person or a deity in any way, it has still been given personal and human characteristics. Above we find Smullyan mentioning a benevolent, impartial, and “friendly” force. I wonder if it is actually possible to ascribe such traits to a thing like a “law of nature” or a “natural phenomena.” For someone or something to have the ability to be impartial or indiscriminate, we would have to assume that they would possess some ability to discern the reality of more than one object to categorize. One would then have to observe that each object displays varied and possibly numerous distinguishing characteristics. To shorten this argument, the person or thing would need the ability to discriminate in order to be “indiscriminate.” The problem here is confusing the concept of neutrality with being “impartial.” At the risk of sounding inappropriate or to critical, I will use the force of gravity once again to illustrate what I mean here. Gravity simply attracts two objects toward each other. It does not “choose” or “not choose” one object over another. It is not benevolent in that it holds humans to the ground and within a breathable atmosphere. It is not friendly because it performs this function. While there are still many facts about gravity and magnetism that are unknown, we do not pre-suppose either of them to be our “friend” or attempt to “love” them.

It is this very thought that caused me to wonder about a possible relationship between the “Lord of Heaven / Ruler on High” concepts with the Tao. If the Tao is simply a neutral force, why should we give it any personal/human qualities? In speculation about the development of religious doctrine and traditions, we often find that there are links between similar ideas and different stages of religious development. Though the outcome of a particular line of thought may end up quite different than its original seed conception, we find that there are still intriguing similarities to the descendant idea and its progenitor. One example of this can be seen by comparing the Hindu idea of dharma to that of the Buddhist. Within Hindu thought, dharma simply referred to “duty or moral law” and at times was used to describe “religious thought and practice” whereas in Buddhism this grew into a concept that was far more elaborate and yet related to its parent concept. According to Noss, Buddhism uses this term to encompass the whole realm and “order of nature, causality, and duty. In the plural, dharmas are irreducible object-events, the phenomena apprehended by the mind as a sense organ.” Buddhism also refers to this word as referring to religious thought and doctrine. (Noss 185)

While I sought after a source to support the possibility of a correlation between the Tao and Shang Di, I was unable to locate sufficient data to establish a bridge between these two ideological traditions. This lack of support may be more a result of insufficient research time than it is a conclusion that they are unrelated notions. As I have demonstrated how trends within a religion can evolve they may also “devolve” throughout time. Unfortunately, I lack the time to research this possible correlation at this time but the future I hope to explore this idea to a greater extent

Yin and Yang:

As part of the Tao we see two forces at work. These forces, at their most basic state can be considered positive and negative. They are two corresponding and universal forces of nature that work to balance each other. If one is out of alignment, then destruction and disaster can and will occur until the balance is restored. While these are “cosmic” forces, we must not confuse them with a cosmic dualism. It is right to think of these energies as opposites but they do not “oppose” each other. Rather they complement each other as male complements female. Correlative is another term to describe a co-existence of these two qualities of the Tao. It is common to misunderstand these forces as “good” and “evil”. But this is actually an incorrect translation of the idea. In reality both forces are seen as good forces in proper relationship to the other. It is only when one is out powered by the other that ill consequences occur.

Wu-Wei:

In acknowledging the natural process of the Tao and its balancing qualities, it was necessary for a philosophical ethic to be born. Above I have described how disaster occurs when the Yin-Yang forces are out of sync. The term “Wu-wei” employs an ethic that is fascinating to explore. I have provided a quote below that explains the term further.

It is impossible to translate the same way in every instance. wu-wei means acting as a spontaneous part of tzu-jan rather than with self-conscious intention. Its most straight forward translation is simply “doing nothing” in the sense of not interfering with the flawless and self-sufficient unfolding of tzu-jan. (Hinton)

The term tzu-jan refers to the unfolding of reality and existence from the Tao as the generative and creative force. Tzu-jan speaks to the concept of “spontaneous” action that is found in the unfolding of and the working out of the natural realm. This characteristic of the Tao exhibits an unplanned and uninhibited expansion of the cosmos. Therefore, as explained above, the wu-wei ethic focuses on not interfering with the rhythm of the natural order. Just as there is an “Eb and Flow” to the tide, so there is a “waxing and waning of” of all reality, this is the structure and character of the Tao. As long as the “flow” is left alone and not interfered with, humanity will experience the blessing of life according to the “nature of things”. The example that is often given to describe how interference disrupts the flow of nature, is that of a river that has been dammed. As the water behind the dam increases, the pressure will build, until disaster occurs where the dam breaks and individuals lose their lives and havoc occurs upon the land surrounding the calamity.

Russell Kirkland asserts that throughout the historical study of Taoism, scholars have found an innumerable amount of evidence about its philosophical and religious ideas and practices. While people will continue to discover facts and make claims about this ideology, they will always find that their research supports the reality that this belief system is centered on the concept of wu-wei. He mentions that once one has been presented with the evidence to such a claim, namely “Taoism is about wu-wei or non-interference”, that no reasonable person would ever consider trying to undermine it. (Kirkland 10)

The goal then, for an individual, is to align oneself with the Tao and not to stand in the way of it. A good life is not in trying to cut ones own course through life but rather following the course set in motion by the Tao. Until this is realized there will always be strife. In chapter 8 of the Tao Te Ching we are encouraged to be like the Tao:

The supreme good is like water, which nourishes all things without trying to. It is content with the low places that people disdain. Thus it is like the Tao. In dwelling, live close to the ground. In thinking, keep to the simple. In conflict, be fair and generous. In governing, don’t try to control. In working, do what you enjoy. In family life, be completely present. When you are content to be simply yourself and don’t compare or compete, everyone will respect you. (TTC 8)

As we discovered above, there was a necessity to establish an ethic that teaches individuals how to relate to the natural system that surrounds them. Likewise, there was a prescription established for how one should live their life in accordance with Tao. The individual who pursues this life is referred to as sheng ren (ideal person) or zhen ren (real person). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy explains how the ideal person or sage is seen in the Tao Te Ching:

“they are like newborn infants, who move naturally, without planning and reliance on the structures given to them by others. The DDJ tells us that sages empty themselves, becoming void of pretense. Sages concentrate their internal energies. They clean their vision. They manifest plainness and become like uncarved wood (pu). They live naturally and free from desires given by men. They settle themselves and know how to be content.”

In the quote above the encyclopedia uses the phrase, “they manifest plainness and become like uncarved wood.” The reference it uses points to chapter 19 of the Tao Te Ching, but when I looked to this passage I found no similarity in wording. However, in chapter 15 I do find some similarity, but it does not appear to be saying what is mentioned above. From the context above I read the illustration of “uncarved wood” to mean there is a sort of purity in the wood that is untouched or tainted by shaping it into something other than it is. Whereas, in chapter 15 the passage reads:

They were careful as someone crossing an iced-over stream. Alert as a warrior in enemy territory. Courteous as a guest. Fluid as melting ice. Shapeable as a block of wood. Receptive as a valley. Clear as a glass of water.

This passage appears to imply that there is no resistance to the forces that would “shape” the block of wood to something more than it is. This concept would not only promote the philosophy of wu-wei it also seems to be consistent with the whole conception of the Tao. As humanity should not tamper with the natural order of reality in the world around them, so the ideal person will empty himself of all self- focused notions of how and what he should do with his own life. By aligning himself with the Tao he will “flow” with the order that he is “one with!” Humility allows him to lay down his expectations of what he would like.

In this paper I have explored various aspects of the Tao. We have made a basic historical examination and brief over view of key philosophical vantage points. I do not feel that I have done these ideas justice in such a short study of them, but hope that my explanation brings some light to this topic.